What is a Learning Disability (LD)?

 

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CONTENT WARNING: I would like to mention that I am not a psychologist, and I am sharing this content for educational purposes only. All content posted on my influencer page is for educational purposes only. Social media should never be used as a substitute for mental nor medical health care nor legal advice. If you suspect that you or your child has any academic concerns, it is okay to get help, and I highly recommend seeking help from a psychologist and/or other professional who is qualified to do so.

    A learning disability (LD) also known as a learning disorder or learning and thinking differences is the most common disability category under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Learning disabilities are neurological differences in processing information that cause learning challenges in specific subject areas or skills. To elaborate more, learning disabilities affect an individual's "performance in reading, mathematics, and written expression" (pg. 119, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). Learning disabilities can make it harder for people to spell as well. Learning disabilities affect the brain's ability to receive, process, analyze, or store information. These struggles can make it really difficult for people to learn as quick as someone that does not have a learning disability. This may lead to difficulty with learning brand-new information and skills along with putting them to use. According to Understood, in the United States, "1 in 5 children" have learning disabilities and "between 5 and 15 percent of people have a learning disability" (The Understood Team 2023). While there is no cure for learning disabilities, learning disabled individuals/individuals with learning disabilities are capable of improvement.

    There are three different types of learning disabilities, which are dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia. Dyslexia is also known as a reading disability or learning disability in reading. Dyscalculia is also known as a math learning disability, mathematics learning disability, math disability, learning disability in mathematics, math dyslexia, or number dyslexia. Dysgraphia is also known as written expression disorder or a learning disability in writing. Most people with learning disabilities have more than one kind. "Learning disability not otherwise specified" is also sometimes used when the SLD is unknown. Some types of learning disabilities can affect a person's ability to concentrate and cause their mind to wander too much as well.

Symptoms:

    Typically, learning disabilities are present at birth and symptoms can start to show at different ages. Symptoms of learning disabilities can onset when individuals are young children and sometimes even later than that such as their pre-teen, teenage, and/or adulthood years.

Symptoms of dyslexia:

• Difficulty with identifying letters of the alphabet, especially letters that look alike such as b vs. d and m vs. n
• Difficulty with phonological awareness
• Difficulty with phonemic awareness
• Difficulty with phonics
• Difficulty with matching letters to sounds
• Difficulty with sounding out words also known as decoding
• Difficulty with differentiating between similar sounds, such as /th/ and /f/
• Difficulty with identifying individual sounds in words and blending sounds to make words
• Difficulty with identifying written words and sentences
• Difficulty with pronunciation
• Difficulty with rhyming
• Speech delays
• Leaving out small words and parts of longer words when reading aloud
• Difficulty with reading fluency or slow reading
• Difficulty with reading comprehension, especially when it comes to written stories, passages, words, concepts, directions, expectations, paperwork, text messages, and e-mails
• Difficulty with answering questions about a page of text after independent reading
• Difficulty with expanding their vocabulary
• Difficulty with alphabetical order
• Difficulty with spelling
• Difficulty with grammar
• Difficulty with identifying abbreviations
• Difficulty with reading and remembering geographical maps
• Difficulty with identifying misspelled words and grammatical errors
• Difficulty with understanding idioms, puns, and other humor
• Difficulty with written self-expression
• Strong at verbal communication alongside difficulty with written communication
• Difficulty with forming written responses into words as part of written classwork, homework, short answer questions, essays, paperwork, text messages, and e-mails
• Difficulty with following written directions, procedures, and expectations, especially "with multiple steps" (The Understood Team 2023)
• Difficulty with language development
• Difficulty with answering questions in language and literacy classes
• Difficulty with applying language skills in real-world situations
• Difficulty with organizational skills
• Slow processing speed
• Poor working memory (WM)
• Reading anxiety

Symptoms of dyscalculia:

• Difficulty with identifying numbers
• Difficulty with counting numbers and objects
• Difficulty with making the connection between numbers in number form and word form, such as 4 and four
• Difficulty with "connecting a number to an object" such as knowing that 9 applies to groups of objects like nine counters, nine beads, or nine people (The Understood Team 2023)
• Difficulty with subitizing
• Difficulty with cardinality
• Difficulty with number sense
• Difficulty with place value
• Difficulty with number sequences
• Difficulty with identifying and correctly using math symbols, such as the plus sign (+) for addition, minus sign (-) for subtraction, times signs (x or •) for multiplication, and obelus (÷ or ⟌) for division
• Difficulty with commutative addition problems (e.g. 5 + 8 equals the same as 8 + 5)
• Difficulty with identifying shapes
• Difficulty with patterns
• Difficulty with fractions
• Difficulty with decimals
• Difficulty with comparing quantities
• Difficulty with measuring skills
• Difficulty with counting and managing money
• Difficulty with identifying time on clocks, especially analog and Roman numeral clocks
• Difficulty with elapsed time
• Difficulty with time management skills, such as keeping track of time
• Difficulty with reading and using calendars
• Difficulty with reading charts and graphs
• Difficulty with solving math problems
• Difficulty with identifying how to solve word problems
• Difficulty with solving higher level math
• Difficulty with math fluency
• Difficulty with mental math skills
• Difficulty with solving math problems without a calculator
• Difficulty with one-to-one correspondence
• Difficulty with logic skills
• Difficulty with comprehending math terminology
• Difficulty with following directions that involve mathematics
• Difficulty with identifying mathematical errors
• Difficulty with organizational skills in structure of shown work for solving math problems
• Difficulty with applying mathematics skills in real-world situations
• Difficulty with answering questions in mathematics classes
• Slow processing speed
• Poor WM
• Math anxiety

Symptoms of dysgraphia:

• Difficulty with handwriting
• Difficulty with typing
• Difficulty with fine motor skills
• Difficulty with holding and using writing tools correctly
• Difficulty with forming letters of the alphabet, numbers, and symbols
• Difficulty with spelling
• Difficulty with grammar
• Difficulty with labeling pictures with a few words in K-1
• Difficulty with writing sentences that are hard to interpret
• Difficulty with "planning before writing and then using the plans" (The Understood Team 2023)
• Difficulty with writing longer sentences with more complex vocabulary
• Repetitively writes fragment sentences
• Repetitively writes run-on sentences
• Repetitively "misuses words or uses words with the wrong meanings" (The Understood Team 2023)
• Difficulty with writing different forms of text, especially narratives, persuasives, and argumentative essays
• Difficulty with written self-expression
• Difficulty with differentiating between stories, opinions, and informational writing
• Frequently leaves out main ideas, facts, opinions, and details in writing content
• Difficulty with putting their thoughts into writing
• Strong at verbal communication alongside difficulty with written communication
• Difficulty with forming written responses into words as part of written classwork, homework, short answer questions, and essays
• Difficulty with writing 1-2 paragraphs
• Exhibits redundant writing
• Difficulty with independently editing and proofreading writing content
• Difficulty with independently identifying misspelled words and grammatical errors
• Strong at verbal communication alongside difficulty with written communication
• Difficulty with answering questions about writing in language and literacy classes
• Difficulty with organizational skills in structure of writing
• Difficulty with applying writing skills in real-world situations
• Slow processing speed
• Poor WM
• Writing fatigue
• Claiming that they do not have any ideas to write about to avoid explaining their struggles with writing due to insecurity or frustration
• Difficulty with finding needed areas of improvement in their writing

Myth Debunking:

    First and foremost, there are many popular myths about learning disabilities that drive me bonkers. I will be listing the myths that mainly bother me the most in a certain order to clear them up first. Insisting that any of these myths are facts instead of myths to anyone in the disability community to bully them for their disabilities or insist that their disability does not exist can actually lower their self-esteem that they struggle with every day as part of their disability. It can still be insulting by fact even if your intention was not to insult the person.

1. MYTH: "Learning disabilities are not real."

FACT: It is common for people to believe that learning disabilities are not real for numerous different reasons that you will find out if you continue to read on. Believe it or not, there are many people often believe that saying that someone has a learning disability is a scheme perpetrated by psychologists, Special Education teachers, and service providers to push for more services just to make money off of consumers. Contrary to this popular belief, however, sometimes people truly need a diagnosis and additional support in and outside of school because of neurological conditions.

2. MYTH: "It is always easy to know who does and does not have learning disabilities."

FACT: It is ableist to assume who is and is not in the learning disability community or the disability community at all. Not all disabilities are easily visible just by looking at or observing someone. Just because you do not understand or know about someone's struggles does not mean that their struggles do not exist. People need to be able to understand and accept someone's struggles in order to support them.

Related Link:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities
  

3. MYTH: "People with learning disabilities are 'bad.'"

FACT: The behaviors of people in the learning disability community are often misunderstood as "bad," especially if they are undiagnosed, their learning disability presents itself as an invisible disability, or their developmental concerns are not being addressed. Students in the learning disability community are actually at risk for having challenging behaviors (Read more in "Risks" section). Challenging behaviors and "being bad" are not the same thing. In fact, it is actually very insulting to refer to any student with challenging behaviors as "bad" because this statement makes it sound like their behaviors define them. Challenging behaviors are not the only part of a person; challenging behaviors are when a person has difficulty with behaving, which is why it is called a challenging behavior. Challenging behaviors can occur for a number of reasons, such as due to chemical imbalances, other disabilities, trauma, unmet needs, and much more.

4. MYTH: "People with learning disabilities are not smart or normal."

FACT: It is common for many people to believe that having a learning disability or being learning disabled means that a person is "mentally slow", "dumb", "stupid", or "not normal." Contrary to popular belief, however, all disabilities are actually "not related to intelligence" or being normal making none of these insulting remarks true about anyone in the disability community (Kaufman 2023). Actually, most people with learning disabilities/learning disabled people are just as smart or more advanced than people without learning disabilities/non-learning-disabled people. In fact, "many people with LD have average or above-average intelligence" (Morin 2023). Many people with learning disabilities are also creative, determined, do many successful things in their lives, and have a lot in common with other people, such as similar interests, abilities, and experiences. They should be given a chance before being underestimated. In addition, many people in the learning disability population have notably become very successful individuals (List of famous people in the learning disability community at the end of this blog post!). Their brains are just wired differently. While learning disabilities affect daily life, most people in the learning disability community succeed and come a long way.

Related Links:

• Multiple Intelligences Theory
• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

5. MYTH: "People who do well in school cannot have learning disabilities", "People with learning disabilities do not get good grades," and "People with learning disabilities cannot be successful."

FACT: People in the learning disability community tend to struggle with perfectionism about doing well in every task, homework, classwork, project, test, quiz, etc. due to past negative performance results. People in the learning disability community may feel insecure when they receive low scores on homework, projects, tests, and quizzes. Another misconception that goes hand in hand with this myth is that "people in the learning disability community are not capable of studying, passing tests, quizzes, and courses and completing assignments." In reality, however, there are plenty of people in the learning disability community who work extra hard to do well in school. Their struggles do not mean that they are incapable of learning and succeeding. Their disabilities and the services and interventions that they receive are not the only parts of their lives. Plenty of people in the disability community get good grades, earn straight A's, earn trophies, awards, and scholarships, apply, get accepted into, and graduate from top colleges, and work jobs with high salaries if they set and work towards realistic goals.

Related Links:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

6. MYTH: "People with learning disabilities cannot be gifted."

FACT: There is such a thing as twice exceptionalities, which means being in the disability community and gifted at the same time.

Related Link:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

7. MYTH: "People who show up to places on time and finish assignments and tasks on time do not have learning disabilities."

FACT: Individuals in the learning disability community may actually struggle with anxiety and perfectionism about being on time. In fact, people in the learning disability community often need to work extra hard to manage their schedule, time, and work to make sure that they are on time.

Related Link:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

8. MYTH: "All people with learning disabilities do not have friends." or "People with learning disabilities are only friends with people with disabilities."

FACT: Overall, people in the disability community tend to struggle with making and maintaining friendships as part of their difficulties with social skills due to neurological reasons and the adversity that they face (Learn more about this in "Risks" section); however, this does not mean that they are incapable of having friendships or being limited to friendships with people in the disability community instead of having a diverse group of friends. Their disabilities and the services and interventions that they receive are not the only parts of their lives. Plenty of people in the disability community participate in sports, attend birthday parties, and enjoy other social activities.

Related Link:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

9. MYTH: "Learning disabilities can go away, be outgrown, or cured" or does not exist in adulthood.

FACT: Just like all disabilities, learning disabilities are permanent. Contrary to popular belief, it is actually impossible for any disabilities to be outgrown or cured. People who are undiagnosed or do not receive proper or effective interventions and services may actually struggle more. People who do not receive a diagnosis until a later age may struggle more. Also, while exposure and seeking interventions and services to get better is often very helpful and always extremely important, this is not a cure. This will only help the person improve to have the skills that they need to set and achieve any other goals and develop other essential life skills.

10. MYTH: "Having a learning disability/Being learning disabled means being lazy or not trying hard enough and makes a person weak."

FACT: While exposure to learning and working on skills is important for everyone, lack of exposure does not cause learning disabilities. Learning disabilities are a neurological condition and lack of exposure and not seeking interventions and services to work towards improvement will only worsen the person's disability struggles instead of causing the disability. People who do not know the full story about someone may jump to these biased assumptions.

11. MYTH: "The prefix, -dis, in "disability" always means being unable to do something."

FACT: People often do not realize nor are willing to accept the fact that disability is actually a multi-meaning word that means a diagnosis that causes difficulty with or limited abilities with doing certain academic and functional skills. Learning disabilities affect how a person learns –– not if they can learn.

Related Link:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

12. MYTH: "All disabilities that affect learning are learning disabilities."

FACT: Not all disabilities that affect learning are learning disabilities. In fact, not all students that experience academic struggles have learning disabilities due to the systems of support called Response to Intervention (RTI) and Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS) framework. (More details about what diagnostic criteria is required for a disability to be classified as a learning disability is in the next section titled "Diagnostic Criteria.")

Related Links:

• What is Down Syndrome?
  
• What is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?
• Interventions for Young Children with Intellectual Disabilities

13. MYTH: "Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Auditory Processing Disorder (APD), Autism/Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDD), and brain damage are the same as learning disabilities."

FACT: There are also many people who are misinformed about certain disabilities being the same as learning disabilities. Believe it or not, ADHD, APD, ASD, IDD, and brain damage are commonly mislabeled as learning disabilities; however, they are not learning disabilities and are classified as different disability categories under IDEA. Brain damage, also known as a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) as classified under IDEA, involves damage to brain tissues; however, "little neurological evidence exists of actual damage to brain tissues" in the brains of people in the learning disability community (pg. 123, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). People in the learning disability community are "now often referred to as having Central Nervous System (CNS) dysfunction rather than brain injury. Dysfunction does not necessarily mean tissue damage; instead, it signifies a malfunctioning of the brain or CNS" (pg. 123, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). Mental illnesses, behavior disorders, low vision, deafness, hard of hearing, and speech impairments are also commonly misdiagnosed as learning disabilities. This is due to their highly similar overlap of symptoms. I actually used to think that ADHD, ASD, and IDDs were learning disabilities until I received furth education about this topic along my teacher journey.

Related Links:

• What is Down Syndrome?
• Interventions for Young Children with Intellectual Disabilities

14. MYTH: "Symptoms of learning disabilities only show up in academics."

FACT: Learning disabled individuals/individuals with learning disabilities do not only struggle with academics. Learning disabilities can cause struggles with daily living skills as well. For example, since dyslexics/individuals with dyslexia struggle with reading, they have a hard time reading forms that they have to fill out at appointments, extracurricular activities, and in workplaces. They have a hard time with reading menus. Another example is that people with dyscalculia may have a hard time with handling money. As for people with dysgraphia, they have a hard time with filling out hard copies of forms resulting in additional parties having a hard time with reading their handwriting. Dysgraphia may also cause them to have struggles with written communication with family members, friends, partners, bosses, coworkers, healthcare professionals, and other people through emails, text messages, important documentations, and other forms of written communication in other scenarios.

Related Link:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

15. MYTH: "Dyslexia only happens in the English language."

FACT: Dyslexia exists worldwide and in all languages. It often takes longer to identify signs of dyslexia in multilingual individuals because teachers, other professionals, families, and even multilingual individuals in the dyslexia community may be convinced that they are struggling because they are English Language Learners (ELLs).

Related Link:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

16. MYTH: "Special Education and service providers never solve anything."

FACT: There are many people who see needing Special Education or therapies, such as speech, occupational therapy, physical therapy, counseling, Therapeutic Support Staff (TSS), etc. as a bad thing. The people with this belief are often the people who refer to students with Special Educational needs as "those students", "the ones", or "them" because of their differences. On the contrary, however, Special Education and related services are intended to give people with Special Educational needs and developmental concerns the help and services that they need.

17. MYTH: "Learning disabilities are caused by watching too much TV, playing too much video games, or spending too much time on other electronic devices."

FACT: A balance between nonelectronic activities and watching TV, playing video games, and using technology can be a way of self-care for individuals in the learning disability community to handle the situation that they are going through. It often helps people who have other disabilities as well. When watching TV, playing video games, and using technology, they may actually have increased focus on something, which can reduce their brain from racing with constant various thoughts. Taking away all technology without solving the underlying cause of the problem will not solve anything. In fact, doing this can actually harm the mental state of individuals in the learning disability community even more, especially if using the technology is their method of self-care for handling what they are going through. Avoid taking away this method of self-care that can be healthy when used in moderation along with other self-care techniques. This healthy balance can also reduce the true harms of technology on the brain.

18. MYTH: "Males/females/people in the LGBTQIA+ community don't have learning disabilities."

FACT: People of all genders face discrimination and all types of challenges in a variety of different ways. Learning disabilities are actually more common in males than females. In fact, "boys outnumber girls by about three to one in the LD category" (pg. 122, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). Researchers have theorized that "the prevalence of learning disabilities among males is due to their greater biological abnormalities" (pg. 122, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). Males have an increased risk for several "biological abnormalities" than females due to a higher infant mortality among males (pg. 122, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). Researchers have also theorized that referral bias might also be a cause of "the higher prevalence of learning disabilities among males" (pg. 122, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). Researchers suggest that males who exhibit academic concerns are more likely to be referred for Special Education because of challenging behaviors that frustrate teachers, especially hyperactivity. There are also many false beliefs that boys do not have learning disabilities and misconceptions that anyone, especially boys, having learning disabilities or experiencing any sign of struggle makes them "weak." Also, due to learning disabilities being statistically more common in boys than girls, many people have the false belief that this means that it is impossible for girls to have learning disabilities. "More common in boys" DOES NOT mean only boys and no girls! In addition, people in the LGBTQIA+ community often spend so much time trying to fit in and struggling with feeling safe being themselves because of the discrimination that they face for this difference. Having a disability on top of their LGBTQIA+ identity can cause them to experience extra adversity adding more difficulty with fitting in and concerns about feeling safe. The constant adversity that the LGBTQIA+ population faces already causes them to be at risk for anxiety and depression. A lack of support and validation for their combination of an LGBTQIA+ and disability/disabilities identities can lower their self-esteem even more. Support and validation are not only ways to boost anyone's self-esteem but can also help them to "feel more confident in their skin" (Douglass 2023).

Related Link:

• Let's Talk About the Ableist Sayings, "But you don't look disabled", "But you don't look like you have a disability/disabilities", "But you don't look like (name of disability)", and "But you look fine to me" when it comes to people's disabilities

Diagnosis Criteria:

    There are many synonymous terminologies used to refer to learning disabilities as well as the disability community identifying with valid diverse identities. The formal clinical diagnosis name that psychologists and the legal system use is Specific Learning Disability (SLD), which is based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, (5th ed.).

    Learning disabilities are typically not diagnosed until the early school age years. Learning disabilities can also be diagnosed later in middle school, high school, and even adulthood when skills required for reading, mathematics, and writing get harder. Learning disabilities usually develop with noticeable signs during the childhood years but are often left unidentified or untreated until adulthood.

Response-to-intervention (RTI) is used to initially identify students with any disabilities in classrooms due to controversy and "criticisms of IQ-achievement discrepancy" (pg. 120, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). Typically, RTI involves three tiers of intensive instruction. Tier 1 involves general education teachers providing evidence-based instruction to students of all abilities in the general education classroom. "Students who don't respond favorably move to Tier 2, in which they receive small group instruction several times a week" in addition to general education classes (pg. 120, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). Students who do not respond favorably to Tier 2 instruction are moved to Tier 3. Tier 3 involves a referral for Special Education where students can receive more intensive instruction and support in addition to still having general education classes.

Related Link:

• Observation Reflection-Value of Observation Techniques

    The only way to find out for sure if a person has a learning disability is "through an extensive and comprehensive evaluation" conducted by a psychologist at school or privately (Kaufman 2023). A psychologist will take different aspects into consideration before making a diagnosis such as when symptoms started, how long symptoms have been present, and how much they affect an individual's daily life and activities, including their present level of performance at school or at work. A diagnosis of a learning disability is usually able to be made if symptoms have been present for at least 6 months even after receiving additional support at home or school. However, it is important to know that school psychologists cannot provide families and students with an official diagnosis of any types of disabilities. In the event that families and students want an official diagnosis, it is the school psychologist's responsibility to recommend that they schedule appointments for that with a clinical psychologist. In addition, "an evaluation by a healthcare professional is needed if there are other concerns about the child's behavior or emotions. Parents, healthcare providers, and the school can work together to find the right referrals and treatment" (Nissim-Matheis 2023).

    There are multiple different formal tests that psychologists must use to diagnose learning disabilities in children and adults as required by IDEA. The following Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests are commonly used to assess individual IQs to diagnose learning disabilities:

• Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
• Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (4th ed.) (WAIS-IV)
• Standard-Binet Intelligence Scale
• Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
• Differential Ability Scales
• Cognitive Assessment System

    The following achievement tests are commonly used to assess how well someone "has retained and applied information after a period of learning" to diagnose learning disabilities (Gillette 2022):

• Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement (WJTA)
• Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement
• Weschler Individual Achievement Test (4th ed.)
• Scholastic Abilities Test for Adults

Visual-motor function tests are also used to assess "how well someone can incorporate motor skills with visual skills" involving handwriting and drawing abilities (Gillette 2022). "One of the most common visual-motor function tests is the Beery-Buktenica Development Test of Visual-Motor Integration" (Gillette 2022).

The following language tests are commonly used to assess reading comprehension along with the "ability to form sentences and put words together" (Gillette 2022):

• Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals
• Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation
• Expressive Picture Vocabulary Test
• Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
• Preschool Language Scale

Some other assessments that are commonly used for diagnosing learning disabilities include:

• Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities
• Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI)

    The reason that psychologists must use so many formal tests to diagnose learning disabilities is because they need to assess individuals' "multiple areas of function" to determine if they meet diagnostic criteria (Gillette 2022). Besides identifying the individuals' areas of improvement, psychologists will also identify "specific strengths and challenges in reading, writing, and math skills" in these evaluations (Kaufman 2023).

Related Links:

• Observation Reflection-Value of Observation Techniques
• Multiple Intelligences Theory
• Authentic vs. Standardized Assessment
• I Have Mixed Emotions About Standardized Tests
• Are Standardized Tests Really Helping Students?

    "Most states rely on an IQ-achievement discrepancy, which is a comparison between scores on standardized intelligence and achievement tests. Many states have adopted different statistical formulas for identifying IQ-achievement discrepancies. However, some of the formulas are statistically flawed and lead to inaccurate judgements, and those that are statistically adequate are difficult and expensive to implement. Furthermore, they give a false sense of precision. That is, they tempt school personnel to reduce to a single score the complex and important decision of identifying a learning disability" (pg. 120, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). In addition to controversy around using formulas, "some authorities have refused to use an IQ-achievement discrepancy for other reasons. "For example, some authorities have pointed out that IQ scores of students with learning disabilities are subject to underestimation because performance on IQ tests is dependent on reading ability, to some extent. In other words, students with poor reading skills have difficulty expanding their vocabularies and learning about the world. As a result, they get lower-than-average scores on IQ tests, which lessen the discrepancy between IQ and achievement. Also, some educators have pointed out that the idea of discrepancy is practically useless in the earliest elementary grades. In the first or second grade, a child isn't expected to have achieved very much in reading or math, so it's difficult to find a discrepancy. Because this delay in identification, the IQ-achievement discrepancy approach has been called a 'wait-to-fail' model" (pg. 120, Hallahan, Kauffmann, & Pullen 2014).

Related Links:

• Authentic vs. Standardized Assessment
• I Have Mixed Emotions About Standardized Tests
• Are Standardized Tests Really Helping Students?

What causes learning disabilities?

    To reiterate, people in the learning disability community have CNS dysfunction and not brain damage. Their CNS dysfunction indicates "a malfunctioning of the brain or CNS" with no damage of brain tissue (pg. 123, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). How people in the learning disability community "come to have a neurological dysfunction" is unknown though (pg. 123, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). While the exact cause of learning disabilities is unknown, there are multiple possible causes of learning disabilities, including genes and brain development playing a role in this.

    Learning disabilities can be present at birth with early signs that cannot be diagnosed until the elementary school years or older. There are also many different causes of LDs for each individual person with this diagnosis. Some people have different causes of their LDs than other people with LDs because every person is different. Usually, the definite causes of learning disabilities for each individual are unknown and can only be determined through possible theories caused by evidence.

Many of the common causes of LDs include but are not limited to:

• Heredity - According to Understood.org, "People are 4 to 10 times as likely to have a learning disability if they have a parent or sibling with a learning disability" (Kaufman 2023).
• Having a biological mother who gave birth to them during teenage pregnancy or at a later age
• Mother's substance abuse (drugs, alcohol, smoking) exposing baby while in the womb
• Premature birth
• Low birth weight
• Birth defects
• Jaundice in the early infant years
• "Pediatric AIDS can result in neurological damage resulting in learning disabilities" (pg. 124, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014).
• Malnutrition
• Exposure to environmental toxins

Related Links:

• There Needs to be More Discussions About Awareness, Prevention, and Healing From Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Risks:

    While being learning disabled or having a learning disability is nothing to be ashamed of, there are many things that people in the learning disability are at risk for. In fact, "Millions of individuals with learning disabilities face academic and social problems and feel a sense of rejection and failure" (pg. 116, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). It is important to be aware of these risk factors in the long run and at all times to protect the learning disability community whether they include your children, other loved ones, students, clients, or even yourself. It is also important to understand that while everyone in the learning disability community is at risk for these factors, that it does not mean that they will exhibit these concerns for sure. As I mentioned earlier, many people in the learning disability community tend to be very successful individuals with many different achievements. Every disability journey is different just like every person is different.

    People in the learning disability community are at risk for the following but not limited to:

1. Difficulty with academic performance and occupational skills

2. Academic burnout

3. Difficulty with stress, anxiety, and depression

4. Difficulty with motivation to go to school and perseverance in academics or tasks that they struggle with

5. Difficulty with self-esteem

• Irrationally thinking that they are "not smart"
• Fixed mindsets that they cannot master a subject despite trying hard
• Feelings of frustration
• Insecurity about struggles and other people finding out about their disabilities
• Self-doubt

6. Difficulty with self-regulation

Related Links:

• Social Withdrawal is a Common Sign of Anxiety and Depression Often Mistaken as Ignoring
• Signs That a Hurting Person is "Crying for Help" Without Crying or Speaking Up
• Lack of Empathy for Students is a Huge Issue in the Education Field
• My 43 Favorite Classroom Affirmations
• My 50+ Favorite Affirmations
• How to Talk to Someone with Suicidal Thoughts
• 100 Reasons to Stay Alive
• Free Confidential Hotlines and Helplines for Suicide Prevention, Mental Health, and Abuse/Neglect

7. Difficulty with social skills

• Communication
• Making and maintaining friendships and relationships
• Shyness
• May withdraw

Related Link:

• Social Withdrawal is a Common Sign of Anxiety and Depression Often Mistaken as Ignoring
• How and Why to Build Relationships in School

8. Common co-occurring disabilities

• Blindness/vision loss
• Speech and language disorders, such as stuttering or pragmatic language disorder also known as social pragmatic communication disorder (SPCD)
• Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
• Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)
• Deaf/hard of hearing
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
• Other anxiety disorders
• Behavior disorders
• Dyspraxia [also known as Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)]
• Physical disabilities

Related Links:

• What is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?

9. Genetic inheritance

    If females in the learning disability community become pregnant, they are at risk for having children in the learning disability community. If biological parents of individuals in the learning disability community become pregnant again, they are at risk for having another child in the learning disability community. In fact, "researchers have found that about 35% to 45% of first-degree relatives (the immediate birth family: parents and siblings) of individuals with reading disabilities have reading disabilities and the risk for reading disabilities goes up for children who have both parents with reading disabilities" (pg. 124, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014). In addition, if biological sisters of individuals in the learning disability community become pregnant, they are at risk for having a child in the learning disability community as well. According to researchers, all of this inheritance is most likely caused by genetics and/or environmental factors. Similar degrees of familiality have been found in families of people with all other disabilities as well.

10. Lack of support in general education classrooms

Related Links:

• Discrimination Against Students in the Disability Community
• Educators Need to Show More Faithfulness to Students, Families, and the Education System
• Lack of Empathy for Students is a Huge Issue in the Education Field
• Let's Talk About the Pennsylvania Code of Professional Practice and Conduct for Educators
• My 43 Favorite Classroom Affirmations
• My 50+ Favorite Affirmations
• How to Talk to Someone with Suicidal Thoughts

11. Child abuse/neglect

Related Links:

• There Needs to be More Discussions About Awareness, Prevention, and Healing From Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
• Lack of Empathy for Students is a Huge Issue in the Education Field
• Educators Need to Show More Faithfulness to Students, Families, and the Education System
• The Importance of Showing Respect for Other People While Advocating for Your Own Respect

12. Bullying

    The bullying that the disability community tends to face as a whole due to discrimination or lack of understanding especially usually includes but is not limited to:

• Teasing
• Name-calling
• Being talked down to
• Segregation/exclusion
• Discrimination in school (from peers, staff, and administrators), workplaces (from coworkers, managers, and customers), family members, and community (peers and general public)

    In fact, "at times, individuals without an understanding of learning disabilities have even perpetuated students' feelings of worthlessness" (pg. 116, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014).

Related Links:

• Discrimination Against Students in the Disability Community
• Educators Need to Show More Faithfulness to Students, Families, and the Education System
• Intro to the New Church Doctrines #6
• Bullying is One of the Leading Causes of Suicide
• What is Cyberbullying?
• How Traumatic Loneliness Can Be Is Not Talked About Enough
• Adult Bullying Is Not Talked About Enough and Can Be Just as Traumatic or Sometimes Worse Than Childhood Bullying
• Bullying Prevention Stimulation Activities for People of All Ages
• My 43 Favorite Classroom Affirmations
• The Importance of Treating Everyone with Respect
• The Importance of Showing Respect for Everyone While Advocating for Your Own Respect

13. Misbehaviors and school discipline

    Misbehaviors of students in the learning disability community typically present themselves as defiance, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and/or bullying due to frustration or to hide their learning differences. In fact, "students with disabilities are more than twice as likely to be suspended as those without disabilities. The loss of instructional time raises the risk of failing. It also raises the risk of kids refusing to go to school" The Understood Team 2023); however, it is important to remember that not all behavior concerns are misbehaviors. For example, the specific difficulties with social skills mentioned in #7 in this section are behavior concerns that are not misbehaviors.

14. Incidents with law enforcement

    "Unaddressed learning and thinking differences can lead to trouble with the law. A large study found that half of young adults with LDs or Other Health Impairments (OHI) have been involved with the justice system" (The Understood Team 2023).

15. Short attention span

16. Avoiding subject areas or tasks that they struggle with

17. Procrastination

18. Grade repetition of one or more grades and higher high school/college dropout rate

    Grade repetition also known as grade retention or being held back is common for not all but many students in the learning disability community. People tend to also use the words, "failed" or "flunked", as insults to describe students who are repeating or have repeated one or more grades. This controversial process tends to have mixed results for different individuals who have repeated one or more grades. Many students who have repeated one or more grades have experienced negative and positive impact from doing so. If students are not able to meet grade level standards needed to go onto the next grade, they should repeat that grade and be provided with any necessary assistance and interventions. Grade retention can prevent students from continuing to fall behind or fall back. Even if they continue to struggle after being held back, the grade retention may help them to not do as poorly. Additional assistance to address students' academic concerns whether they required grade repetition or not was not provided in schools many years ago. Schools would just string students along instead. While this neglect is not as common in schools today as it was many years ago due to more resources, protocol, trainings, and better educated teachers, it still does happen in some schools unfortunately. There are also many students who do not receive academic support at home for a a number of unfortunate reasons, such as but not limited to:

• Busy parenting depending on the number of children
• Parents/guardians with jobs that have conflicting shifts
• Child abuse/neglect
• Having a parent/guardian or other household member who struggles with mental illness or substance addiction, which may be a distraction or involuntarily reduce or prevent help all together.

    Teachers and parents/guardians should be working with students on a daily basis to make sure that they are meeting the fundamentals of curriculum and their needs according to what is developmentally appropriate for them along with addressing their struggles.

    On the other hand, however, "repeating a grade raises the risk of dropping out" (The Understood Team 2023). To elaborate, "one-third of students with IEPs for LD have been held back a grade," which can increase their risk of dropping out of high school (The Understood Team 2023). In fact, "students with LD drop out of high school at nearly three times the rate of all students" (The Understood Team 2023). The main reason that some students with LDs become high school dropouts is due to disliking school or having negative relationships with teachers and peers. Students in the learning disability community are also at risk for becoming college dropouts. To elaborate, "young adults with LD enroll in four-year colleges at half the rate of the general population. Their completion rate for any type of college is 41 percent. (That compares to 52 percent of all young adults)" (The Understood Team 2023). "76 percent of college students with LDs say that they didn't tell their college that they have a disability --- and by law, they can't ask for accommodations without disclosing their disability" (The Understood Team 2023). Not receiving accommodations in college due to no disclosure or lack of accessibility provided by the college or university can result in major struggles with college life, furthering career paths, and dropping out.

Related Links:

• Observation Reflection-Value of Observation Techniques
• There Needs to be More Discussions About Awareness, Prevention, and Healing From Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
• Why Professional Development Opportunities Are Important for All Teachers
• College Tips for Students in the Disability Community as Told by a College Alumni and Advisory Board Member Who Stutters

19. Regression or worsened struggles without the right support

20. Unemployment

    Individuals in the learning disability community are also at risk for unemployment. "Only 46 percent of working-age adults with LD are employed. Compared with adults who do not have LDs, adults with these challenges are twice as likely to be jobless" (The Understood Team 2023). Unemployment can be caused by the severity of individuals' limitations as part of their LDs, lack of employers who are willing to hire employees in the LD population due to discrimination or being fired due to discrimination or lack of understanding with or without disclosure. "81 percent of young adults with LDs have not made their employers aware of their disability --- and only 5 percent say that they get accommodations in the workplace" (The Understood Team 2023).

Related Links:

• Discrimination Against Students in the Disability Community
• Adult Bullying Is Not Talked About Enough and Can Be Just as Traumatic or Sometimes Worse Than Childhood Bullying
• Bullying Prevention Stimulation Activities for People of All Ages
• The Importance of Showing Respect for Everyone While Advocating for Your Own Respect

How to Support the Learning Disability Community:

    I have always been a disability advocate throughout my whole life and through knowing that disabilities are lifelong, I always wondered what adulthood for people who have any disabilities that affect their learning is like. I especially wondered this about learning disabilities. Learning disabilities can impact people at school, workplaces, and in their daily lives. Fortunately, there are many ways to support people of all ages in the LD population at school, home, workplaces, and in communities. In fact, "the best predictors of success for adults with learning disabilities are perseverance, goal setting, realistic acceptance of weaknesses and ability to build on strengths, exposure to intensive and long-term educational intervention, and especially the ability to take control of their lives" (pg. 115, Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen 2014).

1. Educating yourself about learning disabilities and being receptive and open minded to learning more

    Educating yourself about learning disabilities and being receptive and open minded to learning more can be shown by doing any of the following but not limited to:

• Accepting fact sharing, feedback, and constructive criticism from professionals who work with your child
• Reading trusted online resources (especially if research based and expert reviewed) and books about learning disabilities
• Listening to motivational speakers

Related Link:

• What Parents of Individuals in the Disability Community Wish More People in Society Understood

2. Openly and frequently communicating with your child's their teachers and service providers

3. Engaging in open and frequent communication with your child about their diagnosis

4. Encouraging disability pride and reassuring your child, students, and the learning disability community as a whole that being disabled or having a disability is not "bad"

Related Links:

• What Disability Pride Means to Self-Advocates
• Disability Pride Month 2024: Recommendations of Movies with Disability Representation
• Who is Patricia Polacco?

5. Talking to families of children with similar situations

Related Link:

• What Parents of Individuals in the Disability Community Wish More People in Society Understood

6. Encouraging participation in social groups and support groups for the learning disability community and families of the learning disability community

Related Links:

• What Disability Pride Means to Self-Advocates
• Disability Pride Month 2024: Recommendations of Movies with Disability Representation

7. Cultivating supportive environments that provide students with a sense of belonging

Educational Placements:

    Students with SLDs between the ages of 3-21 years old in the United States (3-22 years old in Pennsylvania) are eligible for Special Education, an Individualized Education Program (IEP), and any necessary related services at school. The SLD population in the United States is protected with this right under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and anti-discrimination law known as the Section 504 Rehabilitation Act. IEPs are documentation of accommodations, modifications, Specially Designed Instructions (SDIs), and related services provided to individual students with Special Educational needs to meet their needs. While learning disabilities are permanent, Special Educational program and IEPs can improve the academic and functional skills of students in the learning disability community. In fact, learning disabilities are actually the "largest disability category covered under Special Education law" (The Understood Team 2023). To elaborate, "2.3 million public school students" have Individualized Education Plans (IEP) for learning disabilities (The Understood Team 2023).

    The most common Special Education placements for the learning disability community are Learning Support and Resource Room. Learning Support is a self-contained classroom with all students in the learning disability community. Students must have a diagnosis of a learning disability in order to be eligible for placement in Learning Support classrooms. A Resource Room class period is usually provided for students in the learning disability community who are in middle school and high school. Students in the learning disability community typically have General Education (GE) placements in addition to their Special Education placements. In fact, "7 out of 10 kids with IEPs for LD spend 80 percent or more of the school day in general education classrooms" (The Understood Team 2023). The GE placements of students in the learning disability community typically include College Prep (CP), Honors, and/or Advanced Placement (AP) level classes. Honors and AP level classes are more accelerated general education courses than CP classes. It is not always necessary but common for Special Education teachers and/or Title I paraeducators to provide push-ins and/or serve as co-teachers in GE classes for students in the learning disability community who are on their caseload. There are many social-emotional and academic benefits of including any students in the disability community in GE classes when it comes to integrated inclusion, a sense of belonging, and acknowledging their potential; however, general education teachers need more training and resources to help students in the learning disability community succeed in school. According to research, "only 30 percent of general educators feel strongly that they can successfully teach students with LDs. More training and resources are needed to help diverse learners thrive in general education classrooms" (The Understood Team 2023).

School, Home, and Community Accommodations:

    There are numerous supports that individuals in the disability community can benefit from at school, home, and in the community. One of these types of supports is accommodations. An accommodation adds extra support(s) without changing anything to help an individual still complete an activity/task due to their struggles. English Language Learners (ELLs) and students of all abilities with unique learning preferences and circumstances can benefit from accommodations as well. It is also important to know that unfortunately most colleges and universities will not provide all of the same academic accommodations that students in the disability community may have received in school before post-secondary education; however, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) legally requires all colleges and universities to provide some reasonable accommodations to all of their students in the disability community.

    Typical reasonable accommodations for individuals in the dyslexia community:

1. Extended time for tests, quizzes, homework, projects, classwork, and workplace responsibilities for individuals whose disabilities affect their memory, processing speed, comprehension, concentration, and time management skills

2. Reduced distraction environments (aka quiet room or separate room) for completing tests, quizzes, classwork, homework, projects, and workplace tasks for individuals whose disabilities affect their concentration

3. Someone to read tests, quizzes, classwork, and homework aloud for students whose disabilities affect their letter/word identification skills, memory, and comprehension (FYI the only subject area where students legally cannot have tests and quizzes read aloud to them is reading classes at least in the state of Pennsylvania.)

4. Chunking tests, quizzes, homework, and classwork

    Students in the learning disability community may take a really long time to understand and remember large amounts of information. So, chunking tests, quizzes, homework, and classwork may relieve their stress of understanding and remembering large chunks of information. Chunking tests may also be helpful for students whose disabilities cause them to struggle with paying attention, slow processing speed, working memory, and anxiety, especially if they have ADHD, autism/ASD, and/or anxiety disorders as co-occurring disabilities.

5. Preferential seating (seated at the front of the classroom and near teacher's desk) for students whose disabilities affect their concentration, visual-spatial, and self-regulation skills

6. Providing completed study guides, weekly completed homework guide (instead of independently writing it), and/or notetaker/scribe (instead of independently writing it) to students whose disabilities affect their visual-spatial, written letter/word identification, processing speed, comprehension, concentration, and time management skills

7. Colored strips, bookmarks, or rulers to help students stay on track with lines of text while reading

    Typical reasonable accommodations for individuals in the dyscalculia community:

1. Extended time for tests, quizzes, homework, projects, classwork, and workplace responsibilities for students whose disabilities affect their memory, processing speed, comprehension, concentration, and time management skills

2. Reduced distraction environments (aka quiet room or separate room) for completing tests, quizzes, classwork, and homework for students whose disabilities affect their concentration

3. Someone to read tests, quizzes, classwork, and homework aloud to students whose disabilities affect their comprehension and memory

4. Chunking tests, quizzes, homework, and assignments

    Students in the learning disability community may take a really long time to understand and remember large amounts of information. So, chunking tests, quizzes, homework, and classwork may relieve their stress of understanding and remembering large chunks of information. Chunking tests may also be helpful for students whose disabilities cause them to struggle with paying attention, slow processing speed, working memory, and anxiety, especially if they have ADHD, autism/ASD, and/or anxiety disorders as co-occurring disabilities.

5. Preferential seating (seated at the front of the classroom and near teacher's desk) for students whose disabilities affect their concentration, visual-spatial, and self-regulation skills

6. Providing study guides with answer keys and class notes (to refer back to later) to students whose disabilities affect their visual-spatial, processing speed, comprehension, concentration, and time management skills

    Typical reasonable accommodations for individuals in the dysgraphia community:

1. Extended time for tests, quizzes, homework, projects, classwork, and workplace responsibilities for students whose disabilities affect their motor skills, memory, processing speed, comprehension, concentration, and time management skills

2. Reduced distraction environments (aka quiet room or separate room) for completing tests, quizzes, classwork, and homework for students whose disabilities affect their concentration

3. Chunking tests, quizzes, homework, and classwork

    Students in the learning disability community may take a really long time to understand and remember large amounts of information. So, chunking tests, quizzes, homework, and classwork may relieve their stress of understanding and remembering large chunks of information. Chunking tests may also be helpful for students whose disabilities cause them to struggle with paying attention, slow processing speed, working memory, and anxiety, especially if they have ADHD, autism/ASD, and/or anxiety disorders as co-occurring disabilities.

4. Preferential seating (seated at the front of the classroom and near teacher's desk) for students whose disabilities affect their concentration, visual-spatial, and self-regulation skills

5. Providing completed study guides, weekly completed homework guide (instead of independently writing it), and/or notetaker/scribe (instead of independently writing it) to students whose disabilities affect their motor skills, visual-spatial, written letter/word identification, processing speed, comprehension, concentration, and time management skills

Related Link:

• College Tips for Students in the Disability Community as Told by a College Alumni and Advisory Board Member Who Stutters

School, Home, and Community Modifications and Adaptations:

    Two other types of supports that individuals in the disability community typically benefit from are modifications and adaptations. Modifications change the content and skills involved in an activity/task to help the individual complete it due to their struggles. Adaptations are changes in the learning environment and providing Assistive Technology (AT). English Language Learners (ELLs) and students of all abilities with unique learning preferences and circumstances can benefit from modifications and adaptations as well. Believe it or not, while there is a huge difference between accommodations and modifications, colleges and universities will refer to any supports that college students in the disability community are eligible to receive on campus as "accommodations" verbally and in writing at all times; It is also important to know that unfortunately most colleges and universities will not provide most of the same modifications and adaptations that students in the disability community may have received in school before post-secondary education; however, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) legally requires all colleges and universities to provide some reasonable accommodations to all of their students in the disability community.

    Typical reasonable modifications and adaptations for students in the dyslexia disability community:

1. Modified tests and quizzes

    A modified reading test or quiz may highlight the most important words, especially for reading comprehension questions. The words on modified tests for assessment in any subject area are also not scrunched up all on one page. The words are supposed to be spaced out with multiple choice questions with fewer choices, word banks, and more specific terminology that does not give away the answers. This can help students who struggle with reading comprehension skills in addition to their written word identification skills. Students must have an IEP and certain evidence found in assessments in order to be eligible for modified tests. So, unfortunately, this means that students without IEPs who are struggling are required to continue receiving unmodified tests, which can be really hard if they need it.

2. Allowing students drawing options

    Students can be offered the choice to draw pictures or write answers for worksheet questions. Students can be offered the choice to draw an illustration that goes with their writing first and then write or write and draw the illustration that goes with what they wrote about for writing assignments. Letting upper elementary, middle school, and high school students in the dyslexia community draw what they want to write about as part of their brainstorming before writing may also be helpful. Allowing them the choice to draw what they want to write about may relieve stress instead of constantly making them write since this is a skill that they struggle with.

3. Providing graphic organizers to help with organization of writing

4. Color coded labels or picture labels instead of written labels on folders, binders, notebooks, and other organization tools

    Organization is an extremely important life skill for everyone and individuals in the dyslexia community tend to be visual concrete learners. Color coded labels or picture labels can be effective alternatives to use to organize materials instead of written labels since they are so visual and identifying written words is very difficult for the dyslexia community. When working with individuals in the dyslexia community ask them to identify the color that they associate with certain subjects or topics. For example, students may associate green with science, yellow with Language Arts, red with math, blue with Social Studies, and so on. Employees may associate pink with meetings, green with evaluations, yellow with private/confidential information, or purple with paperwork. Any and all materials related to that subject can be that color or the individual may be able to train their brains to know which color goes with which subject or topic. They can even make a color-coded key with pictures that symbolize each subject matched up to which color goes with which subject (Example color coded key shown below).

    This organization technique can be helpful because when someone looks in their locker, backpack, or bedroom for one of these folders, binders, or notebooks, they are looking for a color instead of the letters "M-A-T-H" or "P-A-P-E-R-W-O-R-K." To elaborate, "instead of forcing visual-spatial learners to direct their attention to the words, allowing them to process things by color is more closely aligned with their natural proclivity” (Nissim-Matheis 2023).

[Image Description: The image shows a color-coded key for organizing folders related to different school subjects. The colors are symbolized by colorful squares. Here is a summary of the color-coding system: Green = Science with emojis of a microscope, test tube, and microbe, Yellow = Language Arts with a stacked books emoji, Red = Math with emojis of plus, minus, multiplication, and division signs and an abacus, Blue = Social Studies with emojis of a globe and scroll, and Orange = Health with emojis of a bone, hospital, anatomical heart, lungs, and brain. My First Former Buddy Club President logo is in the bottom left corner of the image with "FIRST FORMER BUDDY CLUB PRESIDENT" in center-aligned italicized black text overlapping an enlarged light blue heart with several small red hearts and a light blue background in the background of the enlarged heart.]

[Image Description: The image shows a color-coded key for organizing folders related to different work topics. The colors are symbolized by colorful hearts. Here is a summary of the color coding system: Pink = Meetings, Yellow = Private/Confidential Information, and Purple = Paperwork. My First Former Buddy Club President logo is in the bottom left corner of the image with "FIRST FORMER BUDDY CLUB PRESIDENT" in center-aligned italicized black text overlapping an enlarged light blue heart with several small red hearts and a light blue background in the background of the enlarged heart.]

5. Opportunity to use computers, iPads, cell phones, and other electronic devices for notetaking

6. Predictive text

7. Opportunity to use spell checkers or dictionaries

8. Audio recording class lectures and oral responses to assignments instead of writing them

9. Audio books

10. Screen readers

11. Speech-to-text

12. Usage of Read Naturally Live, iReady Reading, Epic, and Book Share programs

• Read Naturally Live Link - https://readlive.readnaturally.com/
  
• iReady Reading Link - https://login.i-ready.com/
• Epic - https://www.getepic.com/
• Book Share - https://www.bookshare.org/

    Typical reasonable modifications and adaptations for students in the dyscalculia community:

1. Modified tests and quizzes

    A modified math test or quiz may guide test takers with diverse learning through the math problems. To elaborate, it kind of sets them up to do the problem and highlights the most important words, especially in word problems. It is also not scrunched up all on one page. The number of problems is usually limited on each page along with lots of space to solve each math problem. The words are spaced out with fewer questions along with multiple choice questions with fewer choices, word banks, and more specific terminology. The word problems are broken down step-by-step. This helps students who struggle with reading comprehension skills. Students must have an IEP in order to be eligible for modified tests. So, students without IEPs who are struggling are required to continue receiving unmodified tests, which can be really hard if they need it.

2. Allowing students in the dyscalculia community to draw pictures to solve math problems

    In addition, luckily, math instructions are so visual anyway since "showing our work" requires so much hands-on doing anyway.

3. Usage of manipulatives for solving math problems (effective visuals)

• Play money
• Counters
• Counting bears
• Counting chips
• Rulers
• Geometric squares
• Shape sorter
• Base ten blocks, rods, and unit cubes
• Stacking blocks
• Multiplication chart
• Multiplication arrays
• Fraction strips
• Tangible clock
• Dice
• Board games
• Number lines

4. Usage of calculators (effective visuals) for solving math problems and calculating prices when paying

5. Usage of digital watches and/or digital clocks (effective visuals) instead of analog clocks

6. Usage of electronic timers and stop watches (effective visuals) instead of keeping track of time by looking at a watch or clock

7. Audio recording class lectures

    To reiterate, individuals in the dyscalculia community tend to struggle with poor working memory as part of their disabilities. So, they may involuntarily forget step-by-step procedures for solving math concepts very easily. If they audio record class lectures in mathematics courses, they can go back into the recording to re-listen to the steps involved in math concepts.

8. Color coded labels or picture labels instead of written labels on folders, binders, notebooks, and other organization tools

9. Usage of iReady Math program

• iReady Reading Link - https://login.i-ready.com/

    Typical reasonable modifications and adaptations for students in the dysgraphia community:

1. Modified tests and quizzes

    A modified test or quiz may guide test takers how to write their answers (without giving answers away) or have limited writing. To elaborate, there may be additional lines with lots of space to write answers and specific explanations of what is required in their writing may be provided. There may also be a mix of multiple-choice questions and written response questions to limit writing to prevent writing fatigue.

2. Allowing drawing options

    Students can be offered the choice to draw an illustration to go with their writing first and then write or write and draw the illustration that goes with what they wrote about for writing assignments. Letting upper elementary, middle school, and high school students in the dyslexia community draw what they want to write about as part of their brainstorming before writing may also be helpful. Allowing them the choice to draw what they want to write about may relieve stress instead of constantly making them write since this is a skill that they struggle with.

3. Providing graphic organizers to help with organization of writing

4. Color-coded labels or picture labels instead of written labels on folders, binders, notebooks, and other organizational tools

Specially Designed Instructions (SDI) at School, Home, and Community:

     Another type of support that individuals in the disability community typically benefit from is Specially Designed Instructions (SDI). SDIs are instructions made to support the different needs of individual students, especially who have IEPs. It is important for teachers, service providers, families, and other necessary involved parties to know the specific diagnosis or diagnoses of people in the disability community in order to know how to instruct this population of diverse learners. It can be extremely hard to know how to give instructions to students in the disability community if the diagnosis is unknown. When teaching literacy, mathematics, and writing to students in the learning disability community, there are multiple interventions that go along with these subject areas.

    Typical reasonable SDIs for the learning disability community:

1. Explicit instructions

2. "I do, we do, you do" strategy

    "I do, we do, you do" involves modeling in the beginning in order to build students' way up to the "we do" step. This SDI tends to really help the learning disability population. Typically, the Learning Support teacher will use the "I do, we do, you do" strategy by reading to the students following the students participating in choral reading, and then, reading with a partner or independently. This process is a constant repetition of reading and hearing the words. First, they hear it, and then, they read it. This strategy allows the students to process the words, which can benefit students who struggle with slow processing speed as part of learning disabilities. The students also get the chance to practice their fluency by reading with a partner as well.

3. Small group instruction

4. One-on-one support

5. Visuals

• Manipulatives
• Demonstrations/modeling
• Drawings
• Pictures
• Videos
• Schedules

6. Hands-on lessons

7. Books that fit students' reading levels picked out by the Learning Support teacher

8. Push-ins and pull-outs

9. Re-teaching lessons

    Re-teaching lessons can be beneficial to students with Learning Support needs for many reasons. The lesson is taught at a slower rate and the students have more time to ask questions if they have any. Students can even receive one-on-one support because there is a small number of students present. In addition, re-teaching lessons can be a helpful review for students who struggle with poor working memory and comprehension as part of their learning disabilities.

10. Calendars

    “Planning ahead is not an easy task when you are living in the moment. Many kids with ADHD and related challenges want to prepare for their upcoming test right before it’s time to take it. They want to get an assignment started and finished all at once. Yet we know that as children get older, time management and planning ahead become increasingly essential as their assignments become more complex. Keep it visual by placing a whiteboard calendar in your child’s room. Once your subjects are color-coded, write the upcoming test, quiz, paper, or project in that color on the whiteboard. Don’t like a whiteboard? No problem. Try an old-school desk calendar (a large one). You can set it up on the wall or place it on a desk and use it in the same way. Color-code subjects as well as extracurricular activities and social plans. When your child is looking at the week ahead, they will be able to process in terms of color and associated subjects” (Nissim-Matheis 2023).

11. GPS systems

    To reiterate, people in the dyslexia community tend to struggle with word identification skills and other co-occurring disabilities that affect their memory. When a driver programs the destination that they are driving to into their GPS system, the GPS will state the directions for where to turn and drive in order to reach the destination instead of researching the directions or being forced to train oneself's brain to memorize the directions, especially in the interest of time.

Related Links:

• College Tips for Students in the Disability Community as Told by a College Alumni and Advisory Board Member Who Stutters

Related Services:

• Special Education, especially Learning Support
• Extended School Year (ESY) (FYI not all students in the learning disabilities qualify for ESY. See your child's IEP for more information.)
• Reading Specialist
• Math Specialist
• Occupational Therapy (OT)
• Therapeutic Support Staff (TSS)
• Tutoring services
• Mental health professionals such as therapists may be helpful for individuals in the learning disability community who struggle with anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and/or other mental health concerns.

Related Links:

• What is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)?

Famous People with LDs:

• Louis Pasteur (French microbiologist, chemist, and pharmacist; dysgraphia and dyslexia)
• Cher (singer; dyscalculia and dyslexia)
• Florence Welch (lead singer of Florence and the Machine; dyscalculia and dyslexia)
• Travis Kelce (Red Kansas City Chiefs football player; dyslexia)
• Patricia Polacco (children's books author; dyslexia)
• Whoopi Goldberg (actress, comedian, talk show host; dyslexia)
• Henry Ford (inventor of cars; dyslexia)
• Bella Thorne (former Disney Channel star on Shake It Up; dyslexia)
• Anderson Cooper (American broadcast journalist and political commentator; dyslexia)
• Jennifer Aniston (actress; dyslexia)
• Orlando Bloom (actor; dyslexia)
• Jim Carrey (actor; dyslexia)
• Tom Cruise (actor; dyslexia)
• Patrick Dempsey (actor; dyslexia)
• Tommy Hilfiger (fashion designer; dyslexia)
• Tim Tebow (athlete; dyslexia)
• Jay Leno (comedian; dyslexia)
• Keanu Reeves (actor; dyslexia)
• Steven Spielberg (director; dyslexia)
• Vince Vaughn (actor; dyslexia)
• Isaiah Zagar (inventor of Philadelphia Magic Gardens; dyslexia)
• Henry Winkler (actor who is best known as playing "The Fonz" on Happy Days; dyslexia)
• George Lopez (comedian; dyslexia)
• Albert Einstein (inventor in physics; dyslexia)
• Hans Christen Andersen (literary fairy tales author; dyslexia)
• Thomas Edison (inventor of the light bulb; dyslexia)
• Jewel (singer; dyslexia)
• Benjamin Franklin (inventor of bifocals and lightning rod; dyslexia)
• George Washington (1st President of the United States of America; dyslexia)
• Tom Holland (actor; dyslexia)
• Leonardo da Vinci (Italian Renaissance painter; dyslexia)
• Octavia Spencer (actress; dyslexia)

If you are a teacher, family member, service provider, and/or other professional who works with the learning disability community or someone else who is interested in learning more about learning disabilities, I highly recommend reading the following books below:

• Laughing Allegra: The Inspiring Story of a Mother's Struggle and Triumph Raising a Daughter with Learning Disabilities written by Anne Ford with John-Richard Thompson

• Nonverbal Learning Disabilities at School: Educating Students with NLD, Asperger's Syndrome, and Related Conditions written by Pamela B. Tanguay and Foreword by Sue Thompson [FYI Nonverbal Learning Disabilities (NVLD) was a learning disability diagnosis that also classified people with this diagnosis as being on the autism spectrum up until 2013. Back when NVLD was in the DSM, NVLD did not mean that people with this diagnosis were nonverbal; it meant that they struggle with interpreting and using nonverbal communication, such as body language, gestures, reading lips, social cues, and fine motor skills, which can affect written communication, which is a form of nonverbal communication. In 2013, the DSM removed NVLD and all other diagnoses similar to autism classifying all of them as being the same as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). I plan to make a separate blog post about NVLD eventually.]

• A Parent's Guide: Helping a Child with Nonverbal Learning Disorder or Asperger's Disorder: Second Edition written by Kathryn Stewart, Ph.D.

• Late, Lost, and Unprepared: A Parent's Guide to Helping Children with Executive Functioning written by Joyce Cooper-Kahn, Ph.D. and Laurie Dietzel, Ph.D.

• Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning and Behavior Problems: Tenth Edition written by Sharon R. Vaughn and Candance S. Bos

• Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education: Thirteenth Edition written by Daniel P. Hallahan, James M. Kauffman, and Paige C. Pullen

To learn more about learning disabilities, you can also visit the following organizations' websites:

• National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) - https://www.ncld.org/
• Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) (formerly known as the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities) - https://ldaamerica.org/
• National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) - https://njcld.org/

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                                                                       Citations

1. Hallahan, Daniel P., Kauffman, James M., & Pullen, Paige C. (2014). Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education. (13th ed.). Chapter 6: Learners with Learning Disabilities. (pgs. 114-149). Pearson.

2. Douglass, R. (5 Jun. 5). Why it's important to support LGBTQIA kids with learning differences. https://www.understood.org/en/articles/supporting-lgbtqia-kids-with-learning-differences

3. Gillette, H. (22 Dec. 2022). How Are Learning Disabilities Tested and Diagnosed? https://www.healthline.com/health/testing-for-learning-disability

4. Kaufman, T. (2023). What are learning disabilities? https://www.understood.org/en/articles/what-are-learning-disabilities

5. Kelly, K. (2023). Classroom accommodations for nonverbal learning disabilities. https://www.understood.org/articles/at-a-glance-classroom-accommodations-for-nonverbal-learning-disabilities

6. Morin, A. (2023). Classroom accommodations for dyscalculia. https://www.understood.org/articles/at-a-glance-classroom-accommodations-for-dyscalculia

7. Morin, A. (N.d.). Classroom accommodations for dysgraphia. https://www.understood.org/en/articles/at-a-glance-classroom-accommodations-for-dysgraphia

8. Morin, A. (2023). Classroom accommodations for dyslexia. https://www.understood.org/articles/at-a-glance-classroom-accommodations-for-dyslexia

9. Morin, A. (2023). Classroom accommodations for slow processing speed. https://www.understood.org/articles/classroom-accommodations-for-slow-processing-speed

10. Morin, A. (2023). Learning disabilities: What they are and aren't. https://www.understood.org/en/articles/learning-disabilities-what-they-are-and-arent

11. Nissim-Matheis, L. (29 Sept. 2023). Build Your Child's Executive Functioning Skills. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/special-matters/202309/build-your-childs-executive-functioning-skills

12. The Understood Team. (2023). Learning disabilities by the number. https://www.understood.org/en/articles/learning-disabilities-by-the-numbers

13. The Understood Team. (2023). Signs of dyscalculia at different ages. https://www.understood.org/en/articles/signs-of-dyscalculia-in-children

14. The Understood Team. (2023). Signs of dyslexia at different ages. https://www.understood.org/articles/checklist-signs-of-dyslexia-at-different-ages

15. The Understood Team. (2023). Signs of written expression disorder. https://www.understood.org/articles/written-expression-disorder-signs